A case study

Candida Darling 06010546 March 26, 2009 Human Development personality and individual differences

Case study:

Using a Socio -Cognititive and a Phenomenological Approach.

Case A:

Madonna Ciccone is a highly successful female singer and actress. She is now in 50 years old, still releasing singles, giving sell out concerts and is a frequent figure in the press. She is famous for being both a perfectionist and having a tendency toward both rebellious and scandalous behaviour.

Madonna is the third oldest child out of six children, born to Italian immigrants to the USA. She had a very strict catholic upbringing, including much iconography, regular prayer and the presence of altars in her family home. She lost her mother (to cancer) when she was only five years old and was brought up by her father and her stepmother (who she did not get along with). She often looked after her siblings as a child, and considers herself as something of a Cinderella figure. Following a brief stint as a cheerleader, she was known as something of a bohemian and poet as a teenager. She became highly rebellious and rejected her religious upbringing. She is highly intelligent, and has frequently displayed evidence of perfectionism. She is an excellent dancer, and started a degree in dance in 1976.

As an adult she has explored the mystical wing of Judaism; the Kabbalah. She has donated £1.75million to the Kabbalah Centre of Los Angeles and an additional £2,600 to Spirituality for Kids (an offshoot of the Kabbalah group).

She is well known for regularly changing her image/identity in the media (hair colour, style, music style) and has often been a controversial stage figure. She has had a string of relationships, and has two children from different fathers. She also (controversially) adopted a boy, David Banda, from Malawi. She is currently going through an acrimonious divorce with husband Guy Ritchie, and is already involved with a new man.

Socio-Cognititive Theory/Approach.

Socio-Cognititive Theory (SCT) has its roots in the behavioural learning tradition (Pervin, 1993), and was initially brought forward with the cognitive theory of Kelly (1969). It was advanced by theorists Rotter (1971), Mischel (1977) and Bandura (1986), to concentrate on human thought processes as at the centre of the personality, and that this cognition develops in a social or learned context ( Guerra, Huesmann, Spindler, 2003; Haslam, 2007). This idiographic theory has developed through to modernity, but continues to draw on original theories centred on: locus of control, expectancies, beliefs, goals and standards, all contributing to the uniqueness of coherence of personality (Dweck & Legett, 1988; Locke & Latham, 2005; Sutin & Robins, 2008).

Humanistic Approach.

This is also an idiographic theory, considered the 3^rd force in psychology, as it draws away from behaviourism and psychodynamic theory. Its main protagonists are: Maslow (1943) and Rogers (1961), whose theories are at the core of the humanistic paradigm, which is phenomenological in method, subjective, hermeneutic, and focuses on the Self as central to its theories. Its fundamental approach to personality is one that is person-centred and it asserts that a person can change and grow across the lifetime, with childhood experiences affecting an individual, but not causing them to reach or fail to reach self-actualisation (Kamins & Dweck , 1999); self- actualisation is understood as an innate drive which works with internal concepts, such as the ego, in order to reach full human potential (Schlegel, Hicks, Arndt & King, 2009). With terms such as conditions of worth; need for positive regard; congruence; and self concept at its core (Rusbult, Kumashiro, Kubacka & Finke, 2009), humanistic psychology asserts a person has an innate drive toward positive realisation of potential.

Using these theories to explore Madonna, it could be suggested that her interpretation of her parents’ religious adherence could have caused her to search out a religion once she became a parent. Madonna’s affinity with Kabbalah can be explained by vicarious conditioning and observational learning (Bandura, 1986; Aron, Fisher, Mashek, Strong Li & Brown, 2005; Bandura, 2008). When Madonna was a child, she witnessed parenting according to religious standards; thus observational learning or vicarious conditioning took place. She has rejected her Catholic upbringing, and using unique competencies and her own skills, she has turned to Kabbalah for spiritual fulfilment and guidance on child rearing (Bandura, 1986; Locke & Latham, 2005).

However, the leap from the strict Catholicism Madonna rejected, cannot simply be explained by vicarious conditioning or learned behaviour; the link is tentative at best. Also her perusal of faith began long after adulthood and the witnessing of her parent’s faith; thus it would be expected that Madonna having no faith for many years would not return to it after such a long absence, as one of the criticisms of SCT is that it does not initially depend largely on childhood experience (Dweck & Legett, 1988;Bandura, 1989).

The humanistic approach would suggest Madonna’s search for spirituality is an intrinsic part of her search for self-actualisation. According to Maslow (1943) this is at the pinnacle of reaching self-actualisation (Cervone & Pervin, 2008). The time delay in this perspective would be expected, as Madonna would need to have fulfilled her other needs before attempting to define her spirituality. It could also be argued that Kabbalah is more in line with Madonna’s ideal self (Higgins, 1987), as having a sense of individuality, feelings of worth, and being accomplished in interpersonal communication are at the centre of Kabbalahist teaching (see Meyer, 2008; Schlegel, Hicks, Arndt & King, 2009).

In addition, recent research in SCT provides more evidence to support the idea that Madonna’s adherence to Kabbalah is a factor related to childhood experiences, together with her own perceptions and cognitions. Because it can be shown that she perhaps fulfilled her schema of a parent by engaging in religious practices, these schemas, used to define and contextualise the world from memory, may be used long after the event has passed, as was proven in recent research by Guerra, Huesmann, Spindler(2003): this is what she had observed as a child with her step-mother and father’s adherence to the Catholic faith and their spiritual dimension of child rearing. This also demonstrates triadic reciprocity (Bandura, 1986): taking Madonna’s perspective on parenting, using cognitions she has created for her own specific goal, in accordance with her unique set of beliefs (Bandura,1989; Cole, Daly & Mak, 2008).

Although it still could be asserted that this theory is weak, in that it minimises any unconscious processes which brought Madonna to adhere to religion and also does not take the distress her mother’s death may have caused in to account (Dowdney, 2008). It nonetheless does explain her behavior in a rational conscious way due to her beliefs and schemas (Pervin, 1993; Haslam, 2007).

Moreover Guerra et al. (2003) suggest that a truamatic event such as death would make the cognitions of that time more accessible ( Guerra, Huesmann, Spindler, 2003) thus alluding to a reinforcing of parenting behaviour specific to that time. Furthermore Higgins (1987), focusing on a phenomoligical perspective, suggets that individuals are more likely to access ought-self behaviour in novel circumstances, so it could be asserted that Madonna may look to others behaviour for cues regarding her then unfamiliar circumstances as a parent (Higgins, 1987;Higgins, 2002).

Furthermore, humanistic psychology would suggest that as Kabbalahistic teaching encourages individuality and growth, it is more likely to prevent any incongruence developing between her ideal self and actual self, which is possibly scandalous and rebellious, and her adherence to a religion which is considered a traditional endeavour (Higgins, 2002;Galinsky, Magee, Gruenfeld, Whitson & Liljenquist, 2008). This approach would also expect her rebellion to be part of her self-actualisation (Frick, 2006). Her search for positive regard from a religious group would perhaps negate the childhood negativity she received from her strict Catholic upbringing and thus lessen discrepancy between ideal/ought and ideal/actual-self concepts (Higgins, 1987; Kamins & Dweck , 1999).

This choice of religion clearly alludes to Rotter’s locus of control; in fact as she consistently takes control of her own situation, it can be asserted that Madonna has an internal locus of control (Rotter, 1971; Mills, & Blankstein, 2000).

It could tentatively be espoused that SCT can account for the reason why she adopted her son David: this is what she saw her step-mother do for her and her siblings, and thus observational learning took place (Bandura, 1986). This conditioning, according to Bandura, is not an actual process, but Madonna’s internal representation of events expressed in self-directed future behaviour (ibid). Thus, together with Madonna’s own schema of a mother and Madonna’s self-regulation toward a goal of being a public mother, circumstances were created where Madonna could improve her schema of herself as a parent ( Ferry, Fouad & Smith, 2002; Dowdney, 2008). For example, her competency and beliefs in her skills in her ability to create and manage scandalous situations were ensured in the controversial public adoption of David, and by managing these circumstances she remained competent, using her own unique skills and thus created self-efficacy in parenting personality (Bandura, 1986; Aron, Fisher,Mashek, Strong, Li,& Brown, 2005).

Maslow (1943) and later proponents of this facet of the humanistic approach, Lewellyn, & Rathweg ( 2005), would suggest Madonna’s reason for adopting David to be far less complicated, and that she had reached self-actualisation as she was thinking of others, experiencing unselfish b-love. Her giving of large sums of money to charity would support this view (Maslow, 1967). However, accepting this explanation would include the facet of privacy that Madonna does not have, as she courts the press (Kamins & Dweck , 1999). David’s adoption was highly controversial, so she would not have received positive regard, and as a consequence would have experienced incongruence (Schüler, Job,Fröhlich, & Brandstätter, 2008). Although an aspect of Madonna’s personality may be her scandalous and rebellious side, thus negating incongruence and opposing her religious activity, she could perhaps lessen the discrepancy that such a conventional act (giving to charity adopting a child) may have cultivated (Higgins, 2002; Galinsky, Magee, Gruenfeld, Whitson & Liljenquist, 2008).

Moreover, Madonna assumed the role of ‘Cinderella’ in her autobiographical account held in her memory, and as she experienced high self-efficacy in prior child rearing and housekeeping (Charles & Carstensen, 2008), it should lead to self-efficacy regarding motherhood and adoption, as she would have to have ‘adopted’ her 3 half-siblings in her account held in her memory (ibid). Charles & Carstensen (2008) assert that the consequences of the cognitive interpretation of events in childhood, as either negative or positive, result in further behaviours to enhance the positive or negative outcome. This empirically agrees with both Mischel and Bandura (Sutin & Robins, 2008; Cervone & Pervin, 2008).

Concurring with this, there are similarities within the humanistic paradigm: Madonna, in order to reach congruence between ideal self and ought self (Rogers, 1951; Higgins, 1987), would seek out opportunities where she could embody her perception of who she is (in this case her concept of Cinderella), together with circumstances where she is able to do what she may perceive society thinks a good person ought to do, for example adopt a child because she is wealthy (Mills, & Blankstein, 2000). Moreover, Madonna could distort her impression of the circumstances (Rogers, 1951 ;Galinsky, Magee, Gruenfeld, Whitson & Liljenquist, 2008) and assume perhaps that the press are making the adoption controversial on this occasion, as they are used to seeing her as controversial in line with Higgins (1987) theory of others-ought- Self.

Although it is hard to measure the correctness of this hypothesis, and therefore this is purely conjecture, this is a predominant criticism of humanistic psychology (Cervone & Pervin, 2008), it does nevertheless appear to be a reasonable assumption, although it is possible that if Madonna was to undertake client centred therapy and the q-sort method was use it could be possible to measure the extent of discrepancies between Madonna’s ideal and actual selves. Higgins (2002) suggests an individual regulates between roles before deciding on the salient approach in a situation thus discrepancies occur which can be measured in a clinical situation although again subjectively as is the nature of Humanistic psychology (Higgins,2002).

Similarly; regarding the Socio Cognitive approach Bandura (1986) asserts that persons can reason using language about past, present and future hypothetical events. An individual will seek out instances where their self-efficacy is high and thus will enhance their self esteem (ibid). For example, Madonna’s continued pursuit of a public performance career creates self-esteem through self-efficacy (Dweck & Legett, 1988; Haslam, 2007), and as theses skills are successive over a long period of time (34 years), in that cheer leading led to dance, which led to performing, that led to continued success, the behaviour is cognitively entrenched ( Ferry, Fouad & Smith, 2002). However, this pursuit of success could in part be the cause of Madonna’s perfectionism and could have caused the problems in her successive relationships.

First it is important to explain that perfectionism is described by theorists of both paradigms to be maladaptive in many cases (Bandura, 1989; Dweck & Legett, 1988; Mills, & Blankstein, 2000; Frick, 2006). Madonna’s perfectionism could be seen a result of cognitive misrepresentations based on defective learning as a child (Beck 1976: Sutin & Robins, 2008). The authors espouse that when a child has authoritarian parents and experiences praise only for good behaviour and not as an individual, the individual strives for perfection as a means of praise and self-esteem (ibid). Rogers (1951) and Hewitt, (2006) would agree with this, as it appears to be Madonna’s perpetual drive toward feelings of worth which are conditional, could be pathological, and derived from her need for acceptance and love and positive regard (Mills & Blankstein, 2000;Hewitt, 2006)).

Furthermore, humanistic theory suggests that when children do not receive unconditional positive regard, they fail to self-actualise as adults (Sorotzkin, 1985). In SCT they then set unattainable goals, which produce: first rebellion in young adults, but consequently a long-standing, maladaptive perfectionism, which then impacts upon interpersonal relationships (Dweck & Legett, 1988; Charles & Carstensen, 2008).

Possibly, although high-efficacy in performance would have led to successful interpretation of her ability to perform and thus perfectionism, this could also explain how the unsuccessful relationship with her parents could be the cause of her low expectations and low efficacy in her relationships (Aron, Fisher, Mashek, Strong, Li, & Brown, 2005). This is further supported by socio-cognitive theorists, using the terms structure and expectancies (Bandura,1989; Fournier, 2005). Although she has had limited success in maintaining long-term relationships, she is adept at establishing them, thus her cognitions pay off to some degree.

Kelly (1969);Raskin, (2002) and Fournier (2005) would suggest her continued try at relationships was her personal construct for relationships being put to the test, tried out and discarded when they failed to work. Similarities and differences contrast to create corollaries (ibid). This Kellian perspective could also account for her constant image change and openness to reward, i.e. seeking love.

In fact, Madonna’s fluidity could be part of her success in the face of failure or loss in personal relationships (Aron, Fisher, Mashek, Strong, Li, & Brown, 2005; Fournier, 2005). This idea would be supported by the humanistic approach, as a string of relationships may give Madonna the opportunity to find aspects of her ideal self in her sexual partners. According to Rusbult, Kumashiro, Kubacka & Finke (2009), each person sustains the other by eliciting significant aspects of the partner’s ideals; each person progresses toward his or her ideal self, and couple well-being is enhanced (Rusbult, Kumashiro, Kubacka & Finke, 2009). Conversely, the unconstructive component of a relationship developed in this manner is that it is dependant, and according to Maslow (1967) a property of d-love destined to fail.

However, for SCT with only conscious subjective thoughts, no emotion or unconscious drives, it may be suggested these theorists fail to address why, in the face of such failure, Madonna continues to pursue relationships.

SCT can nevertheless tentatively explain this aspect of Madonna’s personality with the information at hand, as Bandura (1986) and Charles & Carstensen (2008) suggest, motivations are cognitively generated and with a Cinderella schema in mind perhaps Madonna feels she needs to find the appropriate coping method to attain her efforts of that princely love and complete the Cinderella Story/Schema (Aron, Fisher, Mashek, Strong, Li, & Brown,2005). As can be seen from the recent research discussed above, the search for a significant other is an intrinsic part of reaching human potential (Rusbult, Kumashiro, Kubacka & Finke, 2009), and sufficiently explains Madonna’s persistent search for love, especially in lightof the fact that she refers toherself as a Cinderella figure.

Further exploring this case study it is noted: Madonna is engaged in an acrimonious public divorce, thereby achieving publicity and attention, which she prizes as a reward; this would contribute toward her self-efficacy in the public domain, according to Bandura (2000) and Galinsky, Magee, Gruenfeld, Whitson & Liljenquist (2008). This does not explain though, why Madonna continues in her religious pursuits. However, Madonna’s need for her spirituality may outstrip any discomfort, due to not only observational learning and vicarious conditioning (Bandura, 1986), but also her creativity may lead her to engage in Kabbalah, despite sometimes not fully adhering to all its tenets (Charles & Carstensen, 2008).

It is stated that Kabbalah is the creative strand of Jewish mysticism; it encourages followers to be engaged in creative pursuits and recognises women’s abilities, including intelligence (IQ) (Oelberger, 2006; Tirosh-Samuelson, 2008). Kaufman (2006) reports a strong correlation between IQ and creativity, and asserts the imaginative factor as typically female and generally rated higher by women. He found that this creativity influenced self-esteem and academic self-concept, and also had a positive correlation to open-mindedness, which it could be asserted could help explain Madonna’s diverse behaviour in line with her adherence to Kabbalah (Kaufman, 2006).

This explanation could be extended to her constant change of image. It is reported that once a cheerleader, she eschewed this competitive public image for the bohemian and poet role, which could have gained her further peer approval and led to a development of a schema where she knows she will gain approval for image change (Bandura, 2000). In tandem with this, she may at this point have self-directed herself toward the situation in which she had most self efficacy: dance (Dweck & Legett, 1988; Fournier, 2005); and thus caused her to put her career at the very centre of who she is, causing her to be unable to retire.

Humanistic psychology; according to Galinsky, Magee, Gruenfeld, Whitson & Liljenquist, (2008) would further support this idea in relation to two very important facets: one, as Madonna is wealthy and has high status in her field, she is unlikely to experience profound stress due to divorce (so long as her career is intact), and thus courting the press would enhance her self image. They report in all their experiments that high influence participants were invulnerable to the typical stress of situations; in fact they reported that intra-personal stress had a positive effect on their creative expressions. (Galinsky, Magee, Gruenfeld, Whitson & Liljenquist, 2008).

So it can be maintained according to Socio-Cognitive psychology that Madonna’s behaviour has rational and understandable motivations, she thinks about what she is doing and makes conscious choices accordingly (Cole, Daly & Mak, 2008;Bandura,2008). The Humanistic perspective would suggest her behaviour to be driven toward self-actualisation and that she would need unconditional positive regard to reach this actualisation, perhaps she is searching for this in religion, work and relationships which are possibly the cause of discrepancies in her self portrayed publicly and reported privately (Higgins, 2002;Hewitt, 2006).

In closing it is important to explain that using these theories to critically evaluate a personality is by no means exhaustive, there are criticisms to both theories which have been basically addressed throughout, although there are far more dimensions of these theories to be attended to which cannot be in an essay of this nature.

2673 words excluding references.

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